Educating a New Generation Assignment
Educating a New Generation- Mod 2 (1) Reading Material
Learning Materials:
Billings, D. M. & J. A. Halstead. (2012). Teaching in nursing: A guide for faculty (4th ed.). St. Louis: Saunders. Chapters 2, 13, and 17.
Chapter 2 Summary
This chapter describes the demographic characteristics of the current population of nursing students and the unique needs of students from varied generations, men in nursing, and students who are not in the racial or ethnic majority in their classrooms. The chapter also provides information related to understanding learning styles and the cognitive abilities of students. Faculty are responsible for creating an environment that is conducive to learning. Likewise, students are responsible for identifying environments that will best help them to learn. Understanding students’ diverse learning needs will help faculty and students develop collaborative partnerships that will foster the acquisition of the attitudes, knowledge, and skills necessary to become a nurse. Reflecting on the evidence 1. Assess learning style preferences with instruments that fit the needs of your students. How would you share the results of the learning style preference assessment with the students? How would you assist the students to use their learning style preference information and counsel them on learning strategies that will help them to be successful in their studies? 2. Engage students in creative learning environments that appeal to their diverse needs and learning styles by redesigning a course module to stimulate critical thinking through active learning. Consider how you could provide the students with a choice of learning strategies that would stimulate higher-order thinking. 3. Reflect on one of the courses you teach. What teaching and learning strategies can you incorporate into the course that will lead to a greater emphasis on clinical reasoning and clinical judgment? How can you create opportunities for students to develop their clinical reasoning and clinical judgment skills?
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Chapter 13 Summary
The main focus of the educational experience is the learner as active participant in transaction with the teacher, peers, and the larger environment. Students are given considerable control over the development of learning experiences, and they construct and create knowledge. Faculty assume a primary role as designers of the learning environment and learning experiences in a shared governance approach with students and others contributing to the learning climate. Faculty continue to learn as they teach, thus evolving in their educational philosophy and teaching style. The learning theories and frameworks presented in this chapter provide a guide for faculty to use within the four steps of the teaching–learning process. Each theory or framework has varying degrees of usefulness depending on the faculty’s philosophy about teaching; the philosophy that guides the curriculum; the setting and climate in which the teaching is to occur; student characteristics; and the purpose, nature, and content of the course. Within these contextual variables, faculty need to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each theory or framework and select those that are most appropriate. The shift to the learning paradigm ensures that learners will construct and create knowledge and faculty serve as designers, facilitators, coaches, guides, and mentors. For most learning experiences in higher education and for nursing in particular, behavioristic principles have limited relevance. Current and emerging concepts and principles in the neuroscience of learning, cognitive, humanistic, and adult learning theories and Perry’s model for intellectual and cognitive development, as well as those included in the interpretive pedagogies, patterns of knowing, narrative pedagogies, and caring, are consistent with the thrust of a learning paradigm to guide nursing education. There is constant interaction as faculty create the environment and contextual learning experiences and the student assumes control over learning through active engagement. Reflecting on the evidence 1. Missildine, Fountain, Summers, and Gosselin (2013) found mixed results in a study comparing traditional lecture (n = 53), lecture and lecture capture back-up (n = 53) (audio save of lecture for student download), and the flipped classroom (n = 53) (usual class lecture as homework and real-time class for interaction and application of learning) on academic performance and student satisfaction. Students in the flipped classroom scored higher on course examination averages in the flipped classroom than in the traditional lecture or lecture and lecture capture backup groups, but were less satisfied than those in the other two approaches. What educational theories explain the results of greater academic performance? How can educational theory inform the nurse educator regarding student engagement and motivation? 2. Findings and recommendations from the national Carnegie National Nursing Education Study centered around nursing education’s failure to continually connect what is being taught to prior learning in liberal arts and science courses, and the need to develop in students integrative, multiple ways of thinking as a way to practice in today’s dynamic and chaotic health care environments. What educational theories focus on previous knowledge and experience to build new knowledge? How would a typical nursing lecture be different when using this theory in action? 3. The increased complexity and diversity of patients and the health care system are driving force for nurses to be able to adapt, learn, and function effectively within health care teams. What learning theories might the nurse educator use in working with students in an interprofessional course aimed at improving the quality of health care through interdisciplinary communication, collaboration, and understanding of roles?
Chapter 17 Summary
In summary, several models for clinical education of student nurses exist. Alternative models, collaborative in nature, have evolved because of the increasing complexity of the health care environment. Among these models are preceptorships, the teaching associate model, the paired model, clinical teaching partnerships, and adjunct faculty. The nature of each model dictates the level of student that would benefit most. The paired and clinical associate models have been used for beginning students, whereas the preceptorship model is widely used for students in the upper level of their program and for graduate students. Empirical research on the effectiveness of these models has been sparse; there is a need for further evaluation of and research on these models in terms of their effectiveness on student learning and preparation for the workforce. Clinical teaching involves student–teacher interaction in experiential clinical situations that take place in diverse and often interprofessional practice environments. These environments may include laboratory, acute care, transitional, and community sites, including homeless shelters, clinics, schools, camps, and social service agencies. Faculty must have in-depth knowledge of teaching behaviors that facilitate students’ learning and development, and have complete knowledge of the culture of the practice area as well as the health care provider. Effective clinical teachers are able to plan, facilitate, and evaluate experiences using instructive, interpersonal, and evaluative strategies. These strategies facilitate faculty’s acquisition of the knowledge and skills required to become nurses. A variety of teaching methods can be used to enable students to achieve desired outcomes. Patient assignments, clinical conferences, nursing grand rounds, concept-based clinical activities, and written assignments are among these. The skill level of students, patient’s acuity level, number of students, and patient care resource availability will affect the method used. Among the models suggested for educating nursing students are the traditional approach and alternatives to this model, including preceptorships, CTAs, teaching partnerships, and adjunct faculty. Practicum experiences prepare students for working in a health care system that is evidence based and patient centered. Teaching in the practicum setting blends faculty’s clinical expertise with teaching skills to prepare nurses for current and future roles in an ever-changing health care system. Reflecting on the evidence 1. Choose a set of clinical teaching strategies for a group of students. What do you need to consider about the student, the setting, and the patients in order to make this decision? What evidence for practice will you draw on to make your decision? 2. What is the role of Internet-based teaching and learning in clinical teaching? Can clinical practice be learned in a fully online course? 3. What is the state of science about clinical teaching? What research questions are being asked? What methods are being used? What variables are included in the studies? 4. What are the best practices that are evidenced-based?
Billings, Diane M.. Teaching in Nursing – E-Book: A Guide for Faculty (p. 300). Elsevier Health Sciences. Kindle Edition
Utley, R. (2012). Theory and research for academic nurse educators: Application to practice. Boston: Jones & Bartlett. Chapters 2 and 3.
Chapter 2 Objective & Summary
OBJECTIVES 1. Compare major educational theories and learning principles used to facilitate learning. 2. Explore theory and research related to the learner, teacher, content, teaching strategies, and the learning environment. 3. Identify research-based teaching strategies and best practices for teaching in the face-to-face classroom, practice laboratory, clinical practicum, and distance learning environments. 4. Explore critical thinking, self-reflection, learner motivation strategies, and processes that facilitate learning.
KEY TERMS Andragogy Advance organizer Behaviorism Brain dominance Bruner’s cognitive growth theory, Cognitivism Collaborative teaching Concept mapping Constructivism Connectivism Critical thinking Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model Emotional intelligence Generational theories Gestalt psychology Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Grasha’s teaching styles Humanism Information processing Keirsey’s four temperaments Kolb’s learning cycle Kolb’s learning styles, Mosston’s Spectrum of Teaching Styles Myers-Briggs personality types Novice to Expert Theory Parse’s Human Becoming Teaching– Learning Model Pedagogy Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Principles of learning Problem-based learning R2D2 model Reflective journaling Reusable learning objects Schemata Seven Principles of Good Practice in Education Social Learning Theory Socratic questioning Self-Determination Theory Transformational learning, VAK Learning Styles.
DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION OF COMPETENCY
Facilitation of learning represents a range of diverse factors that the academic nurse educator (ANE) needs to consider when teaching. The competency includes 14 task statements that involve knowledge, skills, and values inherent in the teaching process (National League for Nursing [NLN], Task Group on Nurse Educator Competencies, 2005). These task statements describe two types of knowledge needed by the ANE; content or subject matter knowledge, and knowledge of pedagogy, or the art and science of teaching. The subject matter knowledge needed by the ANE varies depending on the courses taught and whether teaching at the graduate or undergraduate level. For example, teaching nursing research requires specific content knowledge in research designs, methods, and analysis strategies; however, the depth, complexity, and scope of instruction will differ for undergraduate and graduate students. The importance of subject matter or content knowledge is recognized in task statement 13, “Maintains the professional practice knowledge base needed to help learners prepare for contemporary nursing practice” (NLN, Task Group on Nurse Educator Competencies, 2005, p. 1). The second type of knowledge needed by the ANE relates to knowledge of the science and art of teaching, or pedagogy. Examples include knowledge of educational theory and research, teaching strategies, and educational technology; and the art of selective application of science and theory to the learning process. The ANE applies the familiar steps of the nursing process: assessing, diagnosing, planning, implementing, and evaluating to the learner and the learning situation. Thus, attributes of the learner such as learning styles and teaching preferences are assessed and learning needs are determined. The ANE also uses knowledge of the learning situation derived from observation and assessment to determine how learning can best be achieved. This helps create an optimal learning environment. Next, the teaching plan is implemented and learning is evaluated. Implementation of the teaching plan requires skill in communicating information, organizing presentations, and engaging the student using a variety of strategies. To facilitate learning, the ANE also uses knowledge of “the self” to establish collegial relationships and to motivate and inspire learners. The ANE is able to construct a positive learning environment by skillfully communicating interest, respect, and caring, and by modeling critical thinking and reflective practices. The final component reflected in the task statements involves the values underlying the teaching process. Each ANE conducts their teaching practice based on personal values and beliefs about teaching and learning. In other words, the ANE operates from assumptions and beliefs about the relationships between the teacher, the learner, and the environment. These values and beliefs influence the type and amount of interaction and communication that is provided to facilitate learning. Even the personal attributes revealed during the teaching process, such as caring, respect, and enthusiasm stem from values and beliefs. OVERVIEW OF CONCEPTS In this section, foundational knowledge related to major educational theories is reviewed, followed by research and theories related to the learner, the teacher, the content, teaching strategies, and the learning environment. The ANE will find that each educational theory reflects a unique perspective based on differing assumptions, values, and beliefs about teaching, learning, and the learning process. The ANE who is knowledgeable about the various theoretical perspectives will have a repertoire of approaches to draw on when teaching. As a result, the ANE will be equipped to adjust the teaching styles, methods, and strategies and modify the environment and learning content as needed.
Figure 2-1 is a model that depicts factors that facilitate learning. At the center of the model are the key players in the learning process; the teacher and the student. Both have unique personal attributes, learning style preferences, and teaching style preferences that influence the learning process. To enhance the learning process, the ANE skillfully uses self-knowledge of personal attributes and preferences as well as knowledge of the students’ attributes and preferences. Through self-reflection, the ANE recognizes how personal attributes and teaching styles affect student learning. Based on sound theoretical principles, the ANE assesses what the student brings to the situation and differentiates between those attributes that facilitate and impede learning. The ANE gains an understanding of the student’s attributes such as learning styles, motivation, and learning abilities, and is able to select strategies and processes to enhance the achievement of learning outcomes. The ANE also uses knowledge and skills to create an optimal learning environment, to design the content, and implement selected teaching strategies. The ANE is able to facilitate learning by being familiar with these components and the dynamic interactions between them, and taking appropriate actions. Each of the core concepts of student, teacher, environment, content, and teaching strategies depicted in the model is surrounded by a field of educational theory and research, which are major sources of educational knowledge, values, and skills used in teaching practice. Using theoretical and research knowledge, the ANE is aware of how aspects of the core components can be strengthened, molded, or modified to enhance student learning. The factors that facilitate the learning model, depicted in Figure
2-1, serves as an organizing framework for the content of this chapter. Each component will be discussed, beginning with the theoretical knowledge from the outer sphere of the model followed by the core concepts of student, teacher, environment, content, and teaching strategies represented in the inner spheres. To complete the model, the findings from selected research studies and literature reviews will be integrated throughout. EDUCATIONAL THEORIES AND PERSPECTIVES The earliest theories used to guide teaching approaches and strategies were actually psychological theories of human behavior. These major educational perspectives include behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitivism, humanism, and constructivism. Each of these perspectives has added a new dimension to our understanding of learners and the learning process. Principles of learning derived from these theories that are useful for guiding the ANE’s teaching practice will be highlighted at the end of this section. Behaviorism Behaviorism represents a school of thought formulated by the works of Watson, B.F. Skinner, Thorndike, Guthrie, and others. What characterizes these authors’ works are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. To behaviorists learning is seen as a change in behavior, and the environment is key in shaping that behavior. New behaviors are acquired through the process of conditioning in which the learner connects certain responses with certain stimuli (Huitt & Hummel, 1997). Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, or the idea that we behave the way we do because the behavior had certain consequences in the past.
The concept of positive and negative reinforcement describes the use of stimuli to increase a behavior. In teaching, a positive reinforcer could be anything the learner will work toward to obtain, such as a reward, praise, or a good grade. A negative reinforcer involves the removal of a negative stimulus, which will increase the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future. Schunk (2008) describes a case in which the instructor gives the student independent study time for completing an assignment. If the student uses the time wisely and then receives praise for the good work done, the desired response of using the time wisely is reinforced. In the same situation, the likelihood of a positive behavior can be increased by using negative reinforcement. In negative reinforcement, when the student uses the independent study time wisely, the instructor could reward the good outcome by not providing an additional assignment. In this case, the negative reinforcer is the potential extra assignment. The desired response of using the independent study time wisely was reinforced by does not engage in the desired response. For example, in the previous situation in which the instructor gave the student independent study time to complete a task, if the student wasted time and did not adequately complete the task, a negative reinforcer would be to assign additional homework. An example of removal of a positive reinforcer would be to stop providing independent study time. In applying reinforcement or punishment to a situation, the reinforcing or punishing stimulus needs to be administered close in time to the event so that the student makes the connection between the behavior and the reinforcer or punishment. The principle of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a connection to be made) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated), are central to explaining the process of conditioning (Schunk, 2008). Based on these principles, it becomes important for the teacher to present the material in small segments, assess for the achievement of the learning outcome, and give immediate feedback to the learner. Immediate feedback allows learners to make a connection between their behavior, the positive or negative reinforcer received, and the desired response (Schunk, 2008). Although behaviorism is no longer a dominant educational perspective for adult learners, the concepts of positive and negative reinforcement are still useful
Utley, Rose; Utley, Rose. Theory and Research for Academic Nurse Educators: Application to Practice (Kindle Locations 554-564). Jones & Bartlett Learning. Kindle Edition. removing the negative reinforcer from the situation. Another related concept in behaviorism is punishment, which in the behaviorist context refers to either presenting a negative reinforcer or removing a positive reinforcer (Schunk, 2008). Punishment can be instituted when the student today, and the application of the principles of behaviorism have supported several other common approaches. For example, generating behavioral objectives, establishing learning contracts, and programmed instruction have roots in behaviorism. Behavioral objectives are clear statements of the intended student learning outcomes of instruction. Thus, students are given a clear description of how they will know if they have achieved the objective. Another teaching approach that is based in behaviorism is the use of contingency or learning contracts. These are defined as an agreement between the student and teacher that specifies the amount and type of work that will need to be done to accomplish a specific grade (reinforcement). Some faculty have used contingency contracts for specific assignments, especially long-term or complex assignments. Others have used contracts for determining course grades. In either case, a contingency contract helps learners enhance performance by giving them a goal to work toward and by breaking the task into smaller series of steps, which helps them gage their progress (Schunk, 2008, p. 71). Finally, the use of programmed instruction modules, which were especially popular in the 1960s and 1970s, are also based in behaviorism. Programmed instruction involves designing instructional materials so the student is moved through the material in small steps called frames. At the conclusion of each frame, the student is asked questions about the content in the form of short-answer, fill-in the blank, true/ false, or multiple choice questions. If the student responds correctly, the student continues to move forward to explore more content at their own pace. However, if the student responds incorrectly, the student is directed to restudy specific material in the module and is retested using slightly different questions. Because programmed instruction allows the student to work at his or her own pace, it can be used for students who have demonstrated a deficiency in knowledge and need additional study, or for students wanting enrichment in a certain topic. Today, many student workbooks contain exercises and activities that utilize the concept of programmed instruction. Cognitivism Cognitivism is comprised of a group of theoretical perspectives encompassing the works of Brunner, Ausubel, Gagné, Vygotsky, gestalt psychologists, and others (McInerney, 2005). Cognitive theories were generated in response to behaviorism, which was seen as offering a narrow and incomplete explanation for learning. As the name implies, cognitivism emphasizes the person’s cognitive or thinking processes. Learning is considered “an internal process that involves higher-order mental activities such as memory, perception, thinking, problem-solving, reasoning, and concept formation” (Hand, 2005, p. 57). Compared with the behaviorist perspective, constructivism views the learner as more active in the learning process. Constructivists see learning as the result of the individual using thinking processes to acquire or assimilate new knowledge. Assimilation involves the interaction between new information and the learner’s current cognitive structures to form a new understanding of the information (Hand, p. 57). Cognitivism has been distinguished as two separate schools of thought, the cognitivist and the social cognitivist. The cognitivist view emphasizes understanding the thinking or cognitive processes of the individual. Ausubel’s advance organizer, gestalt psychology, Gagné’s information processing, and Mayer’s multimedia principles are examples of theoretical perspectives based in cognitivism. The social cognitivist perspective, represented by Vygotsky’s social development theory, values the role of social processes in learning in addition to cognition. What these theories within the cognitivism umbrella all have in common is the view of learning as more than a change in behavior, but as specific mental processes used by the learner. Cognitivism considers how the mind and memory work to promote learning and is concerned with mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem solving. Cognitivism views learning as schema, or symbolic mental constructions that provide a foundation for organizing and building knowledge. Therefore, cognitivism views learning not as a change in behavior, but as a change in the learner’s schemata. According to cognitivism, changes may be observed in the learner, but they are ultimately an indication of change in cognition. Thus, a major difference between behaviorist and cognitivist perspectives is the locus of control for learning. For behaviorists, the locus of control lies with the environment via conditioning and reinforcement. For cognitivists, the locus of control is within the learner’s mental processes, and the mental schema or organization of that knowledge. In the following section, a brief overview of selected cognitivist theories is presented. Bruner’s Cognitive Growth Theory An American developmental psychologist, Jerome Bruner, proposed a theory of cognitive growth to describe the learning process (Bruner, 1964).
Chapter 2 SUMMARY • To facilitate learning, the ANE applies knowledge and skills related to the teaching– learning process to create an optimal learning environment, design the content, and implement selected teaching strategies. • Figure 2-1 depicts factors that facilitate learning including: (1) research and theory; (2) the learning environment, learning content and teaching strategies; and (3) student/ teacher attributes and preferences. • Educational theories reflect unique perspectives based on differing assumptions, values, and beliefs about teaching, learning, and the learning process. • Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective that views learning as a change in behavior that is influenced by the environment. • Cognitivism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the internal thinking processes involved in learning. • Information processing theory focuses on how the individual stores and remembers information. • Social Learning Theory is a synthesis of behaviorism and cognitivism that.
Chapter 3 Objective and Summary
OBJECTIVES 1. Identify learning needs and successful teaching and advising approaches for multicultural, disadvantaged, at risk, and second degree students. 2. Explore examples of positive learning environments. 3. Compare taxonomies for cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning. 4. Examine adult learning and social learning theories. 5. Explore the impact of peer and self-evaluation, role modeling, mentoring and communication styles on learner development and socialization.
CONCLUSION Facilitating learner development and socialization involves preparing students for the demands of nursing practice and easing the transition from student to nurse. This competency is also concerned with fostering the effective application of knowledge and skills acquired during the nursing program to nursing practice. Facilitating the development of affective dispositions needed to ease the student’s transition from student to nurse and facilitation of ongoing professional development is emphasized. The ANE realizes the importance of blending of the student’s cognitive, psychomotor, and affective knowledge and skills. To achieve this the ANE attends to attributes within the learner and teacher that influence development and socialization. The ANE also cons
