sustainability

Review

Token Economy for Sustainable Education in the Future: A Scoping Review

Kim Hua Tan 1,* , Mathura Kasiveloo 1 and Imran Ho Abdullah 2

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Citation: Tan, K.H.; Kasiveloo, M.;

Abdullah, I.H. Token Economy for

Sustainable Education in the Future:

A Scoping Review. Sustainability 2022,

14, 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/

su14020716

Academic Editor: Jordi Colomer Feliu

Received: 10 November 2021

Accepted: 4 December 2021

Published: 10 January 2022

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1 Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia; [email protected] 2 Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia;

[email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +60-192-735-440

Abstract: This research aims to examine the use of a token economy for education sustainability. It presents a recent review and evaluation of the token economy used among young learners and learners with special needs for behavior management and learning engagement in teaching. Online articles from Google Scholar, ERIC, and UKMLibrary were used. The terms used for reviewing the articles were token economy, token systems, positive reinforcement, and rewards. The scoping review protocol was used for this study. A total of 60 relevant articles published from 2000 to 2020 were filtered and grouped into three major themes for review: behavior management, learning engagement, and types of tokens. Findings suggested that although previous research had examined the impact of a token economy on behavior management and learning engagement, there was limited research on the correlation between teaching methods and social fairness. Teachers as the main participants in assessing the effectiveness of a token economy, were also lacking. Additionally, the use of social and physical reinforcers was found to assist in obtaining the desired behaviors and learning engagement from participants, thereby enabling them to sustain learners’ interest in future lessons.

Keywords: token economy; token systems; positive reinforcement; rewards; young learners

1. Introduction

A token economy is frequently used to monitor pupil behavior, particularly among young learners and pupils with special needs. A token economy is thought to aid educators in controlling pupils’ disruptive behavior and is frequently utilized to attract students’ attention. When participants meet the desired behavior, they are given tokens as a form of positive reinforcement. Among the numerous types of token economy are tangible incen- tives, intangible benefits, positive reinforcements, and negative reinforcements. Despite its widespread use, only minimal research has been conducted on learner engagement in the use of a token economy. This scoping review provides a systematic investigation of the use of a token economy for behavior management and learner engagement in diverse classroom contexts. The implementation of a token economy in different classroom settings provides equal opportunities for learners to develop themselves. Likewise, sustainable education is related to providing equal opportunities for young learners to gain education. The use of a token economy is seen to be a vital tool to motivate learners to come to education institutions to gain knowledge. Motivating learners to want to continue learning is crucial for sustaining interest in education.

The token economy is based on Skinner, B.F. [1]’s operant learning theory, which suggests that rewards and punishments influence behavior. Positive and negative rein- forcements are used in Skinner’s theory to encourage good and desired behaviors, while discouraging undesirable and unwanted ones. Skinner [1] indicated that every action has a consequence; if the outcome is positive, then a person benefits. In this case, this person will be rewarded. However, if the outcome is less than ideal, then the individual is more likely to be demotivated and avoid repeating the process in the future. Through this

Sustainability 2022, 14, 716. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14020716 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

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process, we develop our behaviors and come to learn what is proper and useful and what is not. When teachers commend students for their good behavior, students will eventually emulate such behavior again in the future. When students are not rewarded for their actions, they will begin to act in ways that can be rewarded. In this case, teachers should not allow students to wait for prizes for an extended period because they will become frustrated if they are not rewarded as promised. This situation may cause children to resist achieving the teachers’ expectations because they feel deceived or exploited.

Rewards are another component of the token economy system. Participants will be regularly rewarded only when they exhibit the required behavior. This situation will encourage participants to continue exhibiting the desired behavior that will qualify them for the prizes [1]. The term “rewards” is also used in Skinner’s operant condition theory [1], which states that rewards are utilized to increase participants’ desired response. When indi- viduals are rewarded for their actions, they will continue to act in the same way to receive additional incentives employed to boost or intensify the teacher’s intended response.

Another form of token economy is positive reinforcement. For example, a token economy can entail giving praise immediately after children put away their toys. Praise can also be offered by acknowledging the desired behavior and rewarding children for doing so. This strategy will encourage young people to repeat the same activities in the future. Anything that promotes or improves the desired behavior, such as specific material prizes, events, or situations, is considered positive reinforcement. Praise, getting out of unpleasant work, token rewards, candy, additional downtime, and pleasurable activities are examples of positive reinforcement in classrooms. In Western classrooms, this type of token economy is extensively used.

Sustainable education pedagogies encourage students to ask questions, analyze, think critically, and make decisions. These pedagogies shift from teacher-centered to student- centered lessons, as well as from rote memorization to active learning. These pedagogies are frequently centered on problems or issues. Critical thinking, social critique, and studies of local contexts are encouraged by these pedagogies. They strive for constructive change and assist students in developing a sense of social justice and community self-efficacy.

UNESCO recognized 10 fundamental components of quality education related to individual learners and educational systems. Five of these factors are at the level of learners. First, learners should be located. Second, learners’ expertise and experiences should be acknowledged. Third, content must be made relevant. Fourth, numerous teachings and learning processes should be used. Lastly, the learning environment must be improved. These elements of quality education are crucial for sustainable education for the future, which is evidenced by the implementation of a token economy in the classroom. By using a token economy, pupils are recognized for their effort during teaching and learning sessions. Moreover, they are given the opportunity for self-improvement by creating a competitive learning environment.

Sustainable education ensures that all students receive a high-quality education that is inclusive and equitable, and that lifelong learning opportunities are available to all. Quality education and opportunities for lifelong learning are critical to ensuring a full and productive life for all people in achieving sustainable development. The period of early childhood is crucial for a child’s cognitive development. Primary education has been found to improve a child’s social, emotional, and intellectual development, as well as their readiness for further learning. The implementation of a token economy at this stage is seen as crucial to develop the learner’s cognitive and social skills.

With reference to the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals, there are a few points that can be linked to the implementation of a token economy in our education institutions. Out of their 17 goals, three goals can be linked to the token economy system, which are providing quality education, enforcing gender equality, and reducing inequality. The token economy is a form of positive reinforcement. It does not penalize learners for their mistakes. It motivates them to perform better. The implementation of a token economy is able to motivate learners from different backgrounds to learn. A token

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economy provides the opportunity for all to be rewarded for their positive actions. Equal opportunities are given to the learners to perform and be rewarded by their teachers. A quality education is assessed by the outcome of the learners. Motivating the learners to gain knowledge using a token economy is seen as crucial for the learners’ behavior management and learning engagement towards achieving quality education.

Skinner [1] explained that any reinforcing stimulus that strengthens the targeted behavior is called a positive reinforcer. Therefore, a token economy is a positive method to obtain desired behaviors from participants in a safe manner, without negatively affecting them physically or emotionally. The intervention using a token economy that this study selected is a method from Skinner’s operant conditioning theory (Figure 1). In this theory, the response mentioned is when participants can show the desired behavior needed by the researcher. They should be able to feel motivated and intrinsically triggered to show the desired behavior expected by the researcher.

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system, which are providing quality education, enforcing gender equality, and reducing inequality. The token economy is a form of positive reinforcement. It does not penalize learners for their mistakes. It motivates them to perform better. The implementation of a token economy is able to motivate learners from different backgrounds to learn. A token economy provides the opportunity for all to be rewarded for their positive actions. Equal opportunities are given to the learners to perform and be rewarded by their teachers. A quality education is assessed by the outcome of the learners. Motivating the learners to gain knowledge using a token economy is seen as crucial for the learners’ behavior man- agement and learning engagement towards achieving quality education. Skinner [1] explained that any reinforcing stimulus that strengthens the targeted behavior is called a positive reinforcer. Therefore, a token economy is a positive method to obtain desired behaviors from participants in a safe manner, without negatively affecting them physically or emotionally. The intervention using a token economy that this study selected is a method from Skinner’s operant conditioning theory (Figure 1). In this theory, the re- sponse mentioned is when participants can show the desired behavior needed by the re- searcher. They should be able to feel motivated and intrinsically triggered to show the desired behavior expected by the researcher.

Figure 1. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory.

Reinforcement is defined as a “process of enhancing the rate or probability of a be- havior in the form of a response by delivery either immediately or shortly after completing the activity” [1] in operant conditioning and behavior analysis. The reinforcement theory of motivation emphasizes a person’s emotional and psychological state of mind. Rein- forcement theory focuses on changes that occur in each person as a result of performing certain acts or engaging in certain behaviors. Consequently, Skinner explained that “the external environment must be structured properly and positively to drive the participants towards the desired behavior.” The theory of reinforcement motivation is a significant tool for controlling people’s activities and behaviors. This view disregards the reasons behind people’s actions.

In theory, the two main types of reinforcements are positive and negative reinforce- ments (Table 1). A token economy is classified as positive reinforcement because it gives incentives to participants rather than giving punishments. Incentives motivate the partic- ipants to continue portraying the same behavior in order to be rewarded frequently. Nu- merous types of positive reinforcement are commonly used in various settings. As seen in this review, numerous research papers have discussed many of these reinforcement techniques under the title of “token economy”.

Figure 1. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory.

Reinforcement is defined as a “process of enhancing the rate or probability of a behav- ior in the form of a response by delivery either immediately or shortly after completing the activity” [1] in operant conditioning and behavior analysis. The reinforcement theory of motivation emphasizes a person’s emotional and psychological state of mind. Rein- forcement theory focuses on changes that occur in each person as a result of performing certain acts or engaging in certain behaviors. Consequently, Skinner explained that “the external environment must be structured properly and positively to drive the participants towards the desired behavior.” The theory of reinforcement motivation is a significant tool for controlling people’s activities and behaviors. This view disregards the reasons behind people’s actions.

In theory, the two main types of reinforcements are positive and negative reinforce- ments (Table 1). A token economy is classified as positive reinforcement because it gives incentives to participants rather than giving punishments. Incentives motivate the par- ticipants to continue portraying the same behavior in order to be rewarded frequently. Numerous types of positive reinforcement are commonly used in various settings. As seen in this review, numerous research papers have discussed many of these reinforcement techniques under the title of “token economy”.

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Table 1. Positive and negative reinforcements.

Operant Behavior

Positive reinforcement • Praise • Monetary rewards • Natural reinforcers • Social reinforcers • Tangible reinforcers • Token reinforcers

Negative reinforcement

• Taking away • Removing

A token economy often comes together with more than one stimulus. This system uses a few types of positive reinforcement to achieve desired behaviors. Commonly, researchers use tokens and tangible reinforcers as stimuli for their study. Other flexible strategies also use token economy systems based on the setting and on specific targeted participants.

Researchers can follow the steps to achieve effective outcomes with the use of the token economy system (Figure 2). Accordingly, researchers should follow these steps to ensure the effectiveness of the implementation of a token economy.

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Table 1. Positive and negative reinforcements.

Operant Behavior Positive reinforcement • Praise • Monetary rewards • Natural reinforcers • Social reinforcers • Tangible reinforcers • Token reinforcers

Negative reinforcement • Taking away • Removing

A token economy often comes together with more than one stimulus. This system uses a few types of positive reinforcement to achieve desired behaviors. Commonly, re- searchers use tokens and tangible reinforcers as stimuli for their study. Other flexible strat- egies also use token economy systems based on the setting and on specific targeted par- ticipants.

Researchers can follow the steps to achieve effective outcomes with the use of the token economy system (Figure 2). Accordingly, researchers should follow these steps to ensure the effectiveness of the implementation of a token economy.

Figure 2. Basic token economy cycle (Miltenberger, 2008).

The first step is to decide on the desired behavior that researchers intend to achieve at the end of the research. The second step is introducing the targeted behavior to partic- ipants. This step aims to ensure that they are aware of the behaviors they must portray to achieve the tokens. The third step is the implementation of the intervention. The interven- tion in a token economy should be consistent with the participants’ needs. In other words, rewards or tokens should attract the participants’ interest. If this method fails, then the intervention will be a failure because it will be unable to boost participants’ motivation to engage in the targeted behaviors. Therefore, the various elements of a token economy should be considered to obtain effective outcomes.

Figure 2. Basic token economy cycle (Miltenberger, 2008).

The first step is to decide on the desired behavior that researchers intend to achieve at the end of the research. The second step is introducing the targeted behavior to participants. This step aims to ensure that they are aware of the behaviors they must portray to achieve the tokens. The third step is the implementation of the intervention. The intervention in a token economy should be consistent with the participants’ needs. In other words, rewards or tokens should attract the participants’ interest. If this method fails, then the intervention will be a failure because it will be unable to boost participants’ motivation to engage in the targeted behaviors. Therefore, the various elements of a token economy should be considered to obtain effective outcomes.

2. Materials and Methods

A scoping review is a relatively new approach to evidence production and differs from systematic reviews in purpose and aims. Grant and Booth [2] defined scoping reviews as “an initial evaluation of potential scale and scope of available research literature”. This approach seeks to determine the nature and extent of research evidence (i.e., often including

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ongoing research). Arksey and O’Malley [3] explained that scoping reviews are crucial for four reasons: (1) to determine the scope, range, and type of existing research on a given topic or question; (2) to assess the benefit of conducting a comprehensive examination; (3) to synthesize and disseminate research findings over a large body of evidence; and (4) to identify research gaps in the literature to facilitate future research planning and procurement. Scoping reviews are used to organize and chart the available literature on a topic. An overview of these scoping review steps are simplified in Figure 3 below.

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2. Materials and Methods A scoping review is a relatively new approach to evidence production and differs

from systematic reviews in purpose and aims. Grant and Booth [2] defined scoping re- views as “an initial evaluation of potential scale and scope of available research litera- ture”. This approach seeks to determine the nature and extent of research evidence (i.e., often including ongoing research). Arksey and O’Malley [3] explained that scoping re- views are crucial for four reasons: (1) to determine the scope, range, and type of existing research on a given topic or question; (2) to assess the benefit of conducting a comprehen- sive examination; (3) to synthesize and disseminate research findings over a large body of evidence; and (4) to identify research gaps in the literature to facilitate future research planning and procurement. Scoping reviews are used to organize and chart the available literature on a topic. An overview of these scoping review steps are simplified in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3. Overview of scoping review steps [4].

A total of 60 journal articles were chosen to examine the various instruments, ap- proaches, and tactics for implementing a token economy among learners. These articles were published in various settings between 2000 and 2021. The articles chosen were re- lated to education settings only. The Prisma flow diagram is shown in Figure 4. A total of 102 articles were found from the database, with a combination of journal articles, research papers, and duplicate citations. Relevant articles were systematically chosen to conduct this scoping review.

Figure 3. Overview of scoping review steps [4].

A total of 60 journal articles were chosen to examine the various instruments, ap- proaches, and tactics for implementing a token economy among learners. These articles were published in various settings between 2000 and 2021. The articles chosen were re- lated to education settings only. The Prisma flow diagram is shown in Figure 4. A total of 102 articles were found from the database, with a combination of journal articles, research papers, and duplicate citations. Relevant articles were systematically chosen to conduct this scoping review.

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Figure 4. Prisma flow diagram.

Table 2 shows the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the articles chosen. In general, a few inclusion criteria were applied when choosing the articles. First, the articles had to be published in 2000–2021. Second, the articles had to focus on education settings. Third, articles had to be based on positive reinforcement interventions (token economy) applied to the participants. Lastly, the findings of the articles had to be able to explain the out- comes of implementing a token economy among learners.

Excluded articles were mainly those that did not meet the timeframe. Articles that did not focus on participants from education settings were excluded. The articles chosen had to be linked to education settings. This was the main exclusion criterion. Some of the articles were found have employees as their participants, rather than those from the edu- cation setting. Some excluded articles did not follow the format of a well-designed study, while a few lacked vital information.

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criteria Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria Focus of study Token economy in education Token economy in different settings

Participants Learners/students/pupils Non learners/students/pupils Types of

intervention Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement

Context of study Types of token

economy/intervention procedure

No information on types of token economy used

Types of outcomes

Behavior management and learning engagement

No information on behavior management and learning

engagement

From the 80 articles retrieved, 60 were chosen for the scoping review after full-text screening and data screening. • Scoping review research questions

Figure 4. Prisma flow diagram.

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Table 2 shows the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the articles chosen. In general, a few inclusion criteria were applied when choosing the articles. First, the articles had to be published in 2000–2021. Second, the articles had to focus on education settings. Third, articles had to be based on positive reinforcement interventions (token economy) applied to the participants. Lastly, the findings of the articles had to be able to explain the outcomes of implementing a token economy among learners.

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criteria Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria

Focus of study Token economy in education Token economy in different settings

Participants Learners/students/pupils Non learners/students/pupils

Types of intervention Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement

Context of study Types of token economy/intervention procedure No information on types of token economy used

Types of outcomes Behavior management and learning engagement No information on behavior management and learning engagement

Excluded articles were mainly those that did not meet the timeframe. Articles that did not focus on participants from education settings were excluded. The articles chosen had to be linked to education settings. This was the main exclusion criterion. Some of the articles were found have employees as their participants, rather than those from the education setting. Some excluded articles did not follow the format of a well-designed study, while a few lacked vital information.

From the 80 articles retrieved, 60 were chosen for the scoping review after full-text screening and data screening.

• Scoping review research questions

Research questions constitute an attempt to articulate our curiosity. Curiosity should not lead to questions being asked in a random manner [5] but in relation to what is currently known about the topic of concern.

The guiding questions for this research were as follows: What is the relationship of using a token economy for behavior management and learning engagement in young learners? How could the use of a token economy help in achieving education sustainability and its goals? This review was conducted to evaluate the method of token economy used to engage young learners in learning and the possible outcomes of the research.

3. Results

Research trends based on the articles collected were categorized according to their year (Figure 5). The highest number of articles (34) on the token economy was collected from 2015 to 2020, which covered over half of the total articles analyzed. This result shows that the token economy is a current trend among education researchers.

The different regions of the articles collected were divided into three categories: Asian, European, and other countries. The analysis indicated that 31 articles described research conducted in Asian countries, which mainly included Indonesia, Thailand, India, Malaysia, and Vietnam. Only four articles were acquired from Malaysia. Meanwhile, there were 25 articles from non-Asian countries, such as Canada, the UK, and the US. A total of four articles were from other countries, such as Tehran and Saudi Arabia. These articles showed that the implementation of the token economy is popular in Asian and European countries.

Different settings were identified on the basis of the articles ana