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International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics
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High-performance athletes’ transition out of sport: developing corporate social responsibility
Hee Jung Hong & Ian Fraser
To cite this article: Hee Jung Hong & Ian Fraser (02 Aug 2023): High-performance athletes’ transition out of sport: developing corporate social responsibility, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, DOI: 10.1080/19406940.2023.2242877
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2023.2242877
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
Published online: 02 Aug 2023.
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
High-performance athletes’ transition out of sport: developing corporate social responsibility Hee Jung Honga and Ian Fraserb
aFaculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling, Uk; bStirling Management School, University of Stirling, Stirling, Uk
ABSTRACT This study investigates high-performance athletes’ experiences of transi- tioning out of sport and the support provided to them and describes how the findings suggest Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives which may inform the development of sport policies addressing issues surrounding sport career transitions. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data exploring athletes’ lived experiences of adapting to life after sport. Purposive sampling was applied to 20 retired high- performance athletes (10 male; 10 female), from six different countries, representing 11 Olympic sports. The causes of career termination are found to be multifaceted, with the findings indicating different factors such as ‘feelings of reaching saturation point’, shifts in priorities, decreased self-awareness of performance, policy changes (e.g. reductions in funding, changes in coaching personnel), and significant singular events such as crucial losses to key rivals. Lost goals and identity and a lack of pre-retirement planning were considered as major challenges post-retirement. Refocusing and developing new priorities in life and the importance of seeking support were highlighted in discussions on coping with life post-transition. The findings demonstrate that high-performance athletes require support and care from sport governing bodies and social support providers in adapting to post-athletic life. The implications of these findings for CSR initiatives and their relevance to the policymaking process are discussed.
ARTICLE HISTORY Received 4 December 2022 Accepted 25 July 2023
KEYWORDS Career transitions in sport; corporate social responsibility; high- performance athletes; organisational support; social support
Introduction
In recent decades, various athlete development frameworks have been established to concep- tualise the progression of athletes through different stages of their athletic career pathways. Such frameworks provide a structure for understanding the characteristics and dynamics of athletes’ careers including both normative (i.e. expected, predictable) and non-normative (i.e. unexpected, unpredictable) transitions (Patatas et al. 2020). These frameworks tend to describe an athletic career as a progression through different stages characterised by specific attributes (Gulbin et al. 2013). The stages outlined in these frameworks are commonly referred to as initiation, nurturing, talent identification and development, mastery, and career termination/ transition out of sport (e.g. Sotiriadou et al. 2008, Balyi et al. 2013, Gulbin et al. 2013, Wylleman 2019). By utilising these athlete development frameworks, researchers and
CONTACT Hee Jung Hong [email protected] Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, UK
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORT POLICY AND POLITICS https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2023.2242877
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
practitioners have gained a better understanding of the complexities involved in athletic careers. The frameworks also provide valuable insights into the factors that influence an athlete’s performance and transitions, and they can guide the design of effective developmental pro- grammes and support systems that promote their holistic development and well-being (Hong and Coffee 2018). It is increasingly accepted that the career paths of successful athletes are shaped by the collaborative efforts of different stakeholders and organisations engaged in implementing effective elite sports policies (Sotiriadou et al. 2008). Previous studies have exam- ined the formation of elite sport policies (e.g. Green and Oakley 2001, Houlihan and Green 2008, Andersen et al. 2015), analysed the factors influencing success in elite sports (e.g. De Bosscher et al. 2006, 2015), and investigated the role of sports policy factors and stakeholders in the development of athletes in Para sport (Patatas et al. 2020). However, there is a limited body of research exploring career transitions out of sport and the implications for sport policy.
Career transitions out of sport have been a key focus of research over the past five decades, with Lavallee et al. (2014) identifying several key factors that impact the quality of such transitions for athletes. These factors include individual characteristics like educational level, athletic achievements, vocational experience, financial status, as well as pre-retirement planning, the voluntariness of retirement, and the availability of social support during the transition period (Park et al. 2013, Wylleman 2019, Stambulova et al. 2021). Athletes’ ability to navigate these factors can greatly impact their adaptation to post-athletic life and their success in making a smooth transition out of sport (Stambulova et al. 2009, Küettel et al. 2017). However, significant stresses associated with the transition out of sport can further complicate an athlete’s ability to successfully adapt to post- athletic life; these include strong athletic identity, career-ending injuries, and lack of perceived social support (Lally 2007, Stephan and Demulier 2008, Park et al. 2013). Understanding the challenges and opportunities faced by athletes during this critical phase of their lives is crucial for the development and implementation of effective policies that can support their successful transition into post- athletic careers. Examining this aspect not only benefits individual athletes but also contributes to the broader field of sports policy by providing insights into the factors that can facilitate a smooth and fulfilling transition process. Thus, it is crucial for policy and support programmes developed by sport governing bodies and organisations to address the issues and challenges faced by athletes during transitions. Appropriate programmes and policies can play a significant role in facilitating successful transitions by providing athletes with the necessary resources and support (Hong and Coffee 2018). Such policies and programmes can also benefit organisations in terms of image and reputation, and by increasing athlete retention rates and productivity. Thus, it is critical for sport organisations and policymakers to address the challenges faced by elite athletes during transition and take appropriate actions to provide support. With this mind, the present study seeks to provide empirical evidence of the transitional experiences, challenges, and barriers faced by retired elite athletes, as well as their perceived needs to better prepare for post-sport life. Our findings may inform the establishment of targeted policies and programmes aimed at facilitating athletes’ transi- tion processes.
While research on sport career transitions is well-established, there is a lack of understanding of the association between career transitions in sport and corporate social responsibility (CSR) initia- tives which can form part of sport policy. Although different CSR behaviours and activities have been identified within the sport industry (Babiak and Wolfe 2006), little research has explored the relevance of CSR to athletes’ post-sport transitions. Given that sport organisations both impact, and are impacted by, society, it is appropriate to consider CSR’s role in supporting athletes’ success- ful adaptation to post-sport life (Babiak and Wolfe 2009, Rowe et al. 2018). Thus, investigation is needed to explore the relationship between transitions out of sport, CSR, and sport policy. In seeking to enhance athletes’ transitions out of sport and their subsequent well-being it may be appropriate for sports organisations to consider how incorporating CSR initiatives into sport policy may help facilitate this aim. This may not only enhance athletes’ well-being but also demonstrate a commitment to social responsibility and the broader societal impact of the sport industry.
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The purpose of the study is, therefore, to gain in-depth insights into athletes’ lived experiences of transitioning out of sport, and explore the implications of these experiences for CSR practice and its potential impact on sport policy development.
Literature review
Career development and transitions in sport
Research on athletes’ career development and transitions has evolved through three stages, span- ning five decades, reflecting changes in our understanding and knowledge (Wylleman and Rosier 2016, Stambulova et al. 2021). The first stage (1960s-1980s) focused on career termination, using non-sport frameworks. The second stage (1990s) shifted towards a whole career perspective and within-career transitions, utilising sport-specific frameworks. The third stage (2000s-present) has embraced a whole person and environmental perspective, incorporating culturally sensitive research and practice. New theoretical frameworks have emerged in this stage, such as the athletic career transition model (Stambulova 2003), the holistic athletic career model (Wylleman 2019), and the cultural transition model (Ryba et al. 2015). As research on career development and transition has progressed, scholars have examined various factors (e.g. athletic identity, voluntary career termina- tion) influencing the quality of athletes’ transitions (Lally 2007, Torregrosa et al. 2015, Stambulova et al. 2021). In this respect, research has highlighted the significance of transition in athletes’ lives and the challenges faced by them in their post-athletic lives. These challenges include uncertainties associated with employment and potential lifestyle changes, feelings of vulnerability in managing changes in their expectations, goals, and plans, anxiety about ‘the unknown’, particularly in the case of athletes who have developed their careers around structure and organisation, and concerns about the broader impact of transitions on athletes’ support networks and entourages (Kohe and Purdy 2020). However, it is important to note that while there has been progress in understanding career transitions, there remains a need for critical reflection on the underlying assumptions and values that inform theoretical frameworks and research practices.
While the evolution of research on career development and transition has certainly contributed to our understanding of athletes’ experiences, it is important to critically assess the limitations of previous studies. For instance, early research tended to focus narrowly on career termination and retirement, overlooking the nuances of within-sport transitions and other types of transition (Park et al. 2013). While not all retired athletes view their career terminations as negative or traumatic, earlier studies often fail to capture the full range of experiences and emotions associated with the process (Alfermann 2000). Individuals’ experiences of transitions out of sport may be unique to each individual and vary depending on available resources, causes of career termination, and other personal circumstances (Kohe and Purdy 2020). As such, it is important to approach the topic of transition with sensitivity and a nuanced understanding of the coping process that it entails, acknowledging both the potential positive and negative consequences that can arise (Stambulova et al. 2009). Despite the progress made in research on athletes’ career transitions, it is important to note that the focus on transition out of sport still persists (Stambulova et al. 2021). Torregrosa et al. (2015) conducted a longitudinal qualitative study to identify factors that affect the transition process. This found that a lack of retirement planning, involuntary termination, single athletic identity, lack of social support, and reactive coping strategies contributed to difficulties when transitioning out of sport. Brown et al. (2018) investigated the role of social support in athletes’ adaptation to post- athletic life using interpretive phenomenological analysis. Their findings suggest that athletes who received positive social support during the transition process were more likely to have a successful adaptation to post-athletic life, while those who found it challenging to seek support were more vulnerable to mental health issues. While studies such as Torregrosa et al. (2015) and Brown et al. (2018) have advanced our understanding of factors influencing athletes’ career transitions, it is
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPORT POLICY AND POLITICS 3
crucial to note that these studies were conducted with specific national samples. Further research is needed to explore the experiences of athletes across different cultural and sporting contexts.
Research into sport careers transitions has blossomed and is well established, but the the focus is often on informing practitioners and sport governing bodies on how to improve their practices and provide better support to athletes. Research findings may also serve to enhance sport policies of national governments and sport governing bodies and organisa- tions. There are limited examples but the independent report, entitled ‘Duty of Care in Sport Review’ was developed in the U.K with its lead author being Baroness Tanni Grey-Thompson, a former Paralympian and House of Lords member (Grey-Thompson 2017). The report addresses four different areas including education, transitions, representation, equality, and diversity, highlighting the need for increased support in areas such as athletes’ safeguarding, mental health, youth talent identification, deselection, and transition periods. Although these recommendations presently lack legal enforceability (Kohe and Purdy 2020), researchers may usefully contribute to the policymaking process, providing empirical evidence and recom- mendations to address the challenges faced by athletes as they prepare for their post- athletic lives.
Corporate social responsibility
CSR refers to the strategic behaviours of companies and organisations (Trendafilova et al. 2013). Ullmann (1985) defines CSR as an organisation’s ability to fulfil the expectations, needs, and demands of external stakeholders beyond those related to the company’s products or markets. Carroll (1979) characterises CSR as the societal expectations placed on organisations, while Vogel (2005) refers to it as practices that enhance the workplace and contribute to society beyond the legal obligations of companies. Research on sport career transitions may have a greater impact on the policymaking process if they are integrated into CSR initiatives. This integration can have the potential to enhance benefits for both athletes and sport governing bodies and organisations, although this has not been extensively explored. In the sports industry, CSR has become increasingly important (Tacon and Walters 2010), with sport govern- ing bodies and organisations recognising it as a critical focus over the past decade (Filizöz and Fişne 2011). The relationship between CSR and sport is well-established, given the critical role that sport plays in addressing social issues (Giulianotti 2015). As such, sport governing bodies and organisations can implement CSR initiatives to make a positive impact on society, as seen with FIFA’s ‘Football for Hope’ and ‘Wind in Africa with Africa’ initiatives (Walters 2009). Professional sport teams have also implemented programmes to address social concerns and engage in various CSR behaviours (Walters 2009, Trendafilova et al. 2013). In addition, athletes have established charitable foundations, such as David Beckham’s 7 Fund (Rowe et al. 2018), as a means of contributing to society.
Babiak and Wolfe (2013) proposed six categories or ‘pillars’ of CSR initiatives in sport, includ- ing labour relations, environmental management and sustainability, corporate governance, diversity and equity, philanthropy, and community relations. However, it is important to consider that these pillars were developed in a North American context and may not be applicable elsewhere. In addition, Walker and Parent (2010) categorised the CSR initiatives and activities of 100 U.S. sport entities into various areas, such as community involvement, fair business practices, worker health and safety, cultural diversity, the environment, and youth education. These categories encompass both internal and external initiatives and activities (Rowe et al. 2018). While various types of CSR initiatives have been implemented in the sport industry (e.g. Babiak and Wolfe 2009, 2013, Kolyperas et al. 2016), research on the role of sport governing bodies and organisations in supporting high-performance athletes’ transitions out of sport through a CSR lens is limited. Babiak and Wolfe (2013) also emphasise the need for support for athletes during both within-sport transitions (e.g. amateur to professional) and transitions out
4 H. J. HONG AND I. FRASER
of sport. Examining such support from a CSR perspective provides a new approach to under- standing the issues. Thus, this study aims to investigate high-performance athletes’ experiences of transitioning out of sport and the support provided to them. The objective is to provide recommendations on how the findings may be integrated into CSR initiatives, which, in turn, can inform the development of sport policy to address existing issues surrounding sport career transitions.
Methods
Participants
A total of 20 retired high-performance athletes (10 males and 10 females) were purposively selected for this study. Participants were recruited from six countries, including Japan (n = 1), Mexico (n = 1), Portugal (n = 2), Singapore (n = 6), South Korea (n = 3), and the UK (n = 7). Their ages at the time of data collection ranged between 26 and 41 years (M = 32.5, SD = 4.44), and their retirement duration varied between 1 and 13 years (M = 5.6, SD = 3.67). To protect participants’ identities, their sports and nationalities are not specified in this study. All participants had achieved high-performance status, with 18 having participated in the Olympic Games, one in the Paralympic Games, and one in the Commonwealth Games, as shown in Table 1.
Procedure
A purposive sample was recruited through the first author’s contacts, and snowball sampling was subsequently applied to extend the sample (Noy 2008). Initially, the research team aimed to have three participants from Singapore, South Korea, and the UK. However, data from 20 participants representing six countries were collected due to participants introducing their colleagues and competitors. A multi-case study approach was applied to identify patterns and underlying relation- ships (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Haddock-Millar et al. 2016). Participants were provided with an information sheet outlining the study’s purpose, methods, risks, and benefits, and were informed of their voluntary participation and their right to withdraw at any time. While the first author had professional contacts with the organisations and practitioners and these served to recruit the
Table 1. Description of participants.
Participant Gender Sport Country Age
at retirement Years retired
Athlete 1 Male Individual Korea 33 5 Athlete 2 Male Individual Korea 41 13 Athlete 3 Female Individual Korea 37 13 Athlete 4 Female Fencing Japan 40 9 Athlete 5 Female Individual UK 26 3 Athlete 6 Female Team UK 28 1 Athlete 7 Female Individual Singapore 31 9 Athlete 8 Male Individual UK 40 7 Athlete 9 Male Individual UK 31 2 Athlete 10 Male Individual Portugal 37 9 Athlete 11 Male Individual UK 34 1 Athlete 12 Female Individual Mexico 29 5 Athlete 13 Female Individual Singapore 29 2 Athlete 14 Male Individual Portugal 35 9 Athlete 15 Female Individual Singapore 29 2 Athlete 16 Female Individual UK 32 5 Athlete 17 Male Individual Singapore 33 7 Athlete 18 Female Individual Singapore 28 5 Athlete 19 Male Individual Singapore 30 2 Athlete 20 Male Individual UK 27 3
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participants, she did not have any pre-existing personal relationships with them. To reduce potential researcher bias, the authors employed rigorous research design, transparent reporting, and self- reflection. This approach helped to ensure that the study’s findings were robust (Rothman et al. 2008).
The study employed semi-structured interviews, which were conducted either face-to-face (n = 11) with athletes from Britain and Korea, or via online video calls (n = 9) with athletes from Portugal, Mexico, and Singapore. The semi-structured interviews were designed to be flexible to allow participants to share meaningful experiences that were not covered in the interview guide devel- oped from the literature review (Park et al. 2013, Lavallee et al. 2014, Stambulova et al. 2021) and author discussions. The interview guide covered questions on the athletes’ sport backgrounds, causes of retirement, experiences following retirement, career transition distress, and available resources to cope with career transitions. Interviews lasted between 62 and 179 minutes (M = 99.9, SD = 39.73) and were coded to ensure confidentiality. Verbatim transcription was used for further analysis.
Data analysis
Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), following an inductive approach, was used to analyse the interview data collected, which involved identifying meaningful and significant themes across the data (Braun et al., 2016). The analysis followed the six-step process proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006) and sought to remain open to the research participants’ lived experiences. The data were coded by the first author and she identified the themes based on the coding process. The second author then acted as a critical friend by reviewing the identified themes and providing a thorough evaluation of them. ‘A critical friend’ is an approach facilitated to ensure the rigour and quality of qualitative studies, enabling researchers to enhance the reliability of their studies (Smith and McGannon 2018). It is also intended ‘to encourage reflexivity by challenging each other’s construc- tion of knowledge’ (Cowan and Taylor 2016, p. 508). In this regard, both authors critically reviewed the identified themes, reaching a consensus by reflecting on the data analysis process.
To enhance research quality, the authors followed guidelines by Yardley (2008) and recommen- dations by Brown et al. (2018) to address sensitivity to context and commitment and rigour in design and implementation. To ensure consistency, the first author conducted all interviews and built rapport with participants by sharing her personal experiences. A research journal was kept for a reflexive approach. Suitable samples were selected, and pilot interviews were conducted, with thorough data collection and analysis processes undertaken. Two pilot interviews, not included in the final sample of 20 participants, were conducted by the first author with retired athletes who had competed at an international level, to test the clarity and suitability of the interview guide for the study population. Modifications were made based on feedback received before conducting the final interviews (Sampson 2004). This approach is consistent with best practice in qualitative research in seeking to improve the quality and rigour of the study (Kvale and Brinkmann 2009). The authors ensured transparency and coherence in the research through an audit trail reviewed by the second author. They followed Yardley’s (2008) guidelines to enhance the study’s quality and importance, addressing design, data, analysis, dissemination, and impact. These steps helped ensure the study’s reliability and validity and provided a strong foundation for its conclusions and recommendations.
Results
Five themes were identified during the process of data analysis; these included: (a) Causes of Decision to Transition out of Sport, (b) Lost Goals, Lost Identity, (c) Lack of Pre-Retirement Planning, (d) Refocusing and Developing New Life Priorities, and (e) Seeking Support. The following sub-sections present detailed findings for each theme, supported by direct quotes from the
6 H. J. HONG AND I. FRASER
participants, in order to provide an exploration of their experiences, and implications for policy development.
Causes of decision to transition out of sport
The decision to retire from athletic careers is typically influenced by several factors, indicating the complexity of such decisions. Thirteen out of 20 participants stated that they had ‘had enough’ of their athletic careers, citing changes in priorities, such as starting a family or finding a new job/profession, and a natural conclusion to their athletic careers. However, other participants mentioned reasons such as decreased performance (Athletes 2 and 7), knee injury (Athlete 4), funding cuts (Athletes 11 and 16), new coaches (Athlete 15), and ‘losing to a rival’ (Athlete 16). The study observed that many athletes’ priorities changed after they had ‘had enough’, became aware of decreasing performance, or experienced changes in policy, such as funding cuts or changes in coaching staff. Athlete 6 stopped enjoying her sport and wanted to settle down and start a family. While athletes who felt fulfilled in their athletic careers tended to identify new priorities as a natural sequence, those who experie
